Overview
Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind was first released in Hebrew in 2011, with an English version following in 2014. It examines the formation of human history. Yuval Noah Harari, an Israeli author, throws a harsh light, at times, on how humans have used the principles of capitalism, religion, and politics to govern the world and push the species Homo sapiens to the brink of extinction. Sapiens was a New York Times best-seller and received the National Library of China’s Wenjin Book Award for best book published in 2014. Sapiens earned the Academic Book Week Book of the Year award in 2019 as part of the Academic Book Trade Conference Awards in the United Kingdom.
Harari analyzes the evolution of the human species from its earliest stages to the present day, concluding with some bold predictions for our future. Homo sapiens evolved cognitive capacities that outperformed other humans of the time during the Cognitive Revolution (70,000 years ago). The Agricultural Revolution (10,000 years ago) resulted in the domestication of plants and animals, while the Scientific Revolution (500 years ago) ushered in an era of exploration, research, and capitalism that has come to define today’s cultures. Homo sapiens, the only existing human species, were revolutionized and shaped by the Industrial Revolution (200 years ago).
Advancement is commonly assumed to improve life quality, but Sapiens contends that the contrary is true. Our forefathers, the hunter-gatherers, enjoyed many advantages that we no longer have. We rely on technology and medical improvements, yet our quality of life and environmental stewardship remain far from ideal. From this vantage point, Harari questions how our species came to rule the globe after leaving such devastation in our path. According to the author, this result is attributable to our ability to communicate and believe in things that do not exist.
The concept of shared mythology promotes collaboration among strangers and has resulted in the unification of humanity. Strangers with whom we collaborate include not only members of our community, but also the vast majority of humanity on the planet. Religion, empires and administration, mathematics and writing, and money are examples of myths that allow for collaboration, development, and reasonably peaceful existence. These concepts enable family groupings, communities, and nations to not only exist, but also to grow and thrive. According to Harari, humans are on the verge of another revolution, having become similar to gods by transcending natural selection through genetic engineering and hastening the age of intelligent design.
Part 1 Evaluation
Sapiens begins with a chronological review of Homo sapiens’ progression from simple to complex organisms. Human intellect enabled people to develop distinct civilizations and so gain control over other organisms through ongoing, systematic revolutions that resulted in significant changes to human existence and habitats, as well as other organisms.
Humans’ larger brains distinguish them from other organisms and are responsible for the development of many types of communication and cooperation among humans. Creativity and reasoning power grew alongside communication and cooperation. Homo sapiens were the most capable of all humans in relating complicated information in the form of stories, myths, and collective ideology, and this type of intelligence permitted their species’ spread and success. Nonetheless, despite our progress into sophisticated and complex humans, our instinctive nature remains linked to our hunter-gatherer ancestors.
Humans traveled over the globe as they devised means to overcome the constraints posed by large oceans, different temperatures, and weather patterns. They spread so swiftly because of the ingenuity they acquired throughout the Cognitive Revolution. Though they didn’t realize it at the time, their migration devastated the megafauna, producing ecological disasters on each of the islands and continents they traveled through.
Part 2 Evaluation
Human society was domesticated during the Agricultural Revolution. Plants and animals were domesticated when sapiens transitioned from a hunter-gatherer existence to agriculturally oriented civilizations. As rules and procedures for successfully living together in close proximity with huge numbers of strangers became necessary, the establishment of these farming communities stimulated the formation of structured and organized societies.
The formation of societies resulted in the “building pyramids”—the establishment of social strata. One group of people is on a higher tier of society than another group based on some form of privilege, such as wealth, race, gender, or divine ordination. Today, affluent people at the top of the pyramid are regarded as influential, powerful, and of high class, whilst those at the bottom of the pyramid are regarded as impoverished, trivial, and of low class. The aspirations, goals, and outcomes of the vast majority are influenced and controlled by a small group of people.
With more people and property arose the necessity to find methods of storing knowledge because human memory alone was no longer adequate. However, DNA does not code for laws or conventions. Initially, ideas were passed down through stories and oral traditions from generation to generation, but as this approach proved insufficient, methods of tracking knowledge were devised. The Sumerians devised a numerical system between 3500 and 3000 BC, which was later adopted by the Hindus and Arabs to represent knowledge that could be retained separately and permanently from human memory—written down. The initial data saved in this manner comprised tax, debt, and property ownership records. Writing symbols to represent numbers and keeping track of events and thoughts paved the way for computational data storage and its dominance over our finances, assets, careers, and daily lives.
Large communities, cities, and empires are organized by unequally distributed mass cooperative networks. Superior persons influence and dominate the lower members of social orders. The upper tiers of ancient societies were often placed by claims of divine ordination and maintained through coercion or grossly uneven distribution of wealth and labor. In current times, societal divisions and inequality persist throughout nations, regions, cities, and families. These disparities generate imagined order.
Part 3 Evaluation
Humans create civilizations based on social and religious beliefs that guide and instruct them in their development. Each system makes an attempt to steer human society toward harmonious collaboration and wealth. The distinctiveness of a culture originates from the characteristics inherent in its people—specifically, their beliefs and norms, which are dynamic and can blend into another culture, with certain beliefs kept while new norms and practices arise and are embraced. Our social order of values, beliefs, and aspirations is anchored in culture, which has developed over millennia and is not static.
Currency is a part of cultural formation and has progressed from barter commerce to metal transactions, paper money, and electronic data. Currency fuels dominance and has transformed and modernized global trade and the global economy.
As imperialistic ideology developed and was used to justify colonization of Africa and the invasion of the Ottoman Empire, new world orders continue to believe that they are morally superior and should conquer other societies. Religion plays a significant role in these moral superiority postures that adherents are bound to observe and preach to others. Because faiths and cultures are malleable, we are increasingly moving toward a global culture with communal concerns and difficulties that must be resolved worldwide in order to achieve success and wealth for all.
Part 4 Evaluation
Through an awareness of bacterial, fungal, and viral infections, the creation of the microscope led to a comprehension of the microscopic world and revolutionized the lives of humans. With this revelation, mankind realized how naïve they had been to a world that had such a profound impact on them, and it paved the path for further exploration.
Empires formed and gained control of the world as they improved it to their liking, aided by scientific and technological advances. America and Europe’s imperialistic agenda stems from their utilization of scientific development to achieve influence, control, and increase profits.
People sought control over their personal riches, which led to the development of capitalism. To that purpose, investments in business and scientific research must be made, as well as the exploration of other geographical areas and the initiative to identify any utility behind scientific discoveries. The ambition to produce wealth and opportunity serves largely wealthy individuals and promotes global competitiveness and economic expansion, sometimes at the expense of the poor.
Industrial development stems from capitalist values, as businesspeople and industrialists anticipate that reinvesting their profits back into their business, rather than saving them, allows their business to expand and thrive, often exponentially. With the willingness to invest earnings, society has been industrialized, and this industrialization has supported city growth and the restriction of time and schedules.
Homo sapiens drive revolution while domesticating plants and animals to meet their wants. Because humans have not carefully regulated this process, accessible natural resources are being exploited at an alarming rate, while the natural world and its ecology are being degraded. When wealth development takes precedence over stewardship, resources and people are exploited in favor of mass manufacturing of things.
Despite all of our supposed development, technological growth, and personal affluence, the question of whether we are happy remains unanswered. We just know that we are safer, have more money, and have nicer homes, food, and clothing. Religion and philosophy are frequently pitted against science when it comes to determining what constitutes pleasure and whether happiness stems from external conditions or internal biochemistry. Perhaps it is a combination of the two. According to some religions, “knowing thyself” is essential for recognizing happiness and releasing oneself from negative actions that ruin enjoyment.
Homo sapiens are currently entering a new stage in their evolution, that of intelligent design. This is not the work of a supreme being, but rather the work of mankind. Society has progressed to the point where science dominates practically every element of our daily life. Only time will tell whether this means the extinction of Homo sapiens and the emergence of some evolved life form, as author Harari suggests. As society progresses in this way, Harari challenges us to consider who we want to be.
Discussion Questions
1. Investigate the concept of “shared fictions” and their function in community and society creation. How can these shared beliefs, as explored by Harari, contribute to the functioning and collaboration of huge human units?
2. Discuss the extraordinary human ability to imagine and believe in fiction. How does this characteristic distinguish humans from other animals, and how do these imagined realities influence nations, civilizations, cities, and families?
3. Investigate the evolution of common beliefs over time. How have civilizations’ shared fictions developed, from polytheistic gods to modern belief in the worth of money, and what impact do these changes have on human cooperation and interaction?
4. Investigate the notion that evolution has no purpose or strategy. How can Harari refute the idea that humans are the perfect result of evolution? Discuss the scientific viewpoint on evolution and its emphasis on reproductive success rather than achievement of a specific goal.
5. Consider the idea of equality as a common myth. What is the genesis of the concept of equality in Christianity, and how does it differ from the blind, purposeless nature of evolution, which rewards abilities and characteristics?
6. Discuss the relationship between enjoyment and purpose in “Sapiens.” How have shared fictions and meaningfulness changed over time, and how do they affect human happiness?
7. Examine the claim that happiness is determined by expectations rather than external circumstances. How does Harari argue that comparing oneself to others keeps us from finding happiness? Examine the ramifications of this viewpoint on happiness.
8. Consider human history and the effects of various revolutions on our well-being. How does Harari refute the notion that technological advances, such as the Agricultural Revolution, have made us better off, and what negative repercussions does he highlight?
9. Consider the connection between capitalism and human values in the pursuit of pleasure. How does Harari argue that reconciling these two features could benefit society well-being?
10. Discuss the biological perspective on happiness and its relationship to internal bodily processes. How does this viewpoint square with the notion that improving external circumstances does not always result in enhanced happiness, especially if damaging behaviors persist?
Reflection Essays
1. How do “shared myths” help to build stable societies?
2. Explain the purpose of gossip and its significance in language development.
3. Consider the notion that “luxuries become necessities.” What are the repercussions of one leading to the other?
4. Discuss the domestication of wheat and Harari’s contention that it instead domesticated humanity.
5. What, according to Harari, is history’s biggest forgery?
6. What causes poverty? Make your point by using examples from Harari’s book.
7. Explain the relationship between the pervasiveness of war and the pervasiveness of patriarchy.
8. Explain dualism and the connections between heaven, hell, and the soul.
9. Select three lessons from human history and apply them to our lives in the present world.
10. Examine Harari’s thesis that humans are evolving into godlike, intelligent designers.